During the August presentation, Kevin Herbert will first examine the separate fates of the residents of Herculaneum (the present Ercolano) and Pompeii on that tragic day, the 24th of August, A.D. 79.  Then we shall focus specifically on the ruins and reconstructions of Pompeii; the town forum, the theater and amphitheater, a commercial street, atrium-style private houses and their décor, and two sumptuous suburban villas one of which contains a mural representing the initiation of a young woman into one of the “mystery religion” cults of Roman times.

A knowledgeable and experienced world traveler and interesting lecturer, Kevin Herbert holds a Ph.D. in Classical Philology (Latin and Greek) from Harvard University.  He was Professor of Classics at Washington University from 1962 until retirement in 1992, serving also as Department Chairman from 1982 to 1992. 
 

“You are Peter, and upon this rock I will 
build my church, and the gates of the 
netherworld shall not prevail against it.” 

For centuries, scholars of early Christian history have believed that Peter was martyred in AD 64 (some say 67) in the Circus of Caligula and Nero (it goes by both names), that his body was taken to a pagan cemetery, a necropolis or city of the dead, across the Via Cornelia, north of the Circus, and buried in its Potter’s Field.  In circa the year 150, Christians are said to have built a small shrine over the grave and, in circa 320, the Emperor Constantine built the first St. Peter’s Basilica over the necropolis; however, not until very recent times, had direct evidence of the Saint’s actual tomb or physical remains ever been found. 

The present Basilica of St. Peter was built during the 1500’s upon the ruins of Constantine’s fourth century church.  To build his church, Constantine had to fill and level the slope of the Vatican hill and cover the underlying cemetery with an estimated one million cubic feet of earth.  Although it was generally known that the church of St. Peter’s had been built upon a necropolis, no direct evidence existed until 1939, when workmen excavating below the present Church to construct the tomb of Pope Pius XI, uncovered the roof of a first century mausoleum.  The then Pope, Pius XII, ordered archaeologists to make a careful examination of what lay below the Church, beginning a process of scholarly studies finally completed in the early 1960’s. 

Among many important discoveries, probably the most significant were the graffiti wall, a structure covered with writing and symbols, and an adjacent small shrine or trapaion.  In 1942, a “repository” was found in the graffiti wall containing some bones.  Then, in 1950, a shard of plaster was discovered in the wall with the term Petr[os]eni on it.  This was interpreted by some as “Peter is buried here”.  Another important discovery occurred in 1952 when Prof. Margherita Guarducci, in further study of the wall, found a complex monogram combining the famous Chi-Rho symbol of Christ with an E insignia which, when turned on its side, takes the form of a key. 

The monogram also contained markings that can be construed as a “victory” symbol and the words Maria and Petrus.  This clearly Christian monogram is believed to refer to St. Peter.  In 1964, the examination of the bones discovered in 1942 was completed:  they were determined to be those of a male skeleton and did not conflict with bone fragments kept in the Basilica of St. John Lateran, also reputed to be remains of St. Peter.  In 1968, Pope Paul VI announced that “The relics of St. Peter have been identified in a manner which we believe convincing.  Very patient and accurate investigations were made with a result which we believe positive.” 

Father Bené closed by summarizing the evidence underlying the announcement made by Pope Paul VI: 

Timing:  the graffiti wall and trapaion were built during the first century, as proven by various Christian and pagan markings found on them. 
Inscriptions:  the markings on the graffiti wall (i.e. “Peter is here” and the Chi-Rho symbol). 
Tradition:  Constantine chose this spot to build his basilica because he believed it to be the location of Peter’s tomb. 
Relics:  the bone fragments of a man were found in the wall repository. 

Interestingly, the bones seem to reinforce the belief that Peter was crucified upside down because the feet had been severed at the ankles and were missing.  It was surmised that the easiest way for the executioners to remove the body from the cross would have been to simply chop it off at the ankles. 

It is said that all roads lead to Rome, that all of Rome is oriented toward St. Peter’s Basilica, and that the focal point of the Basilica is the great high altar.  Father Bené’s presentation substantiated the traditional belief that this altar stands in a direct vertical line over the great Saint’s tomb. 

Rev. Philip Bené is a priest of the Archdiocese of St. Louis.  He is currently a doctoral candidate in Canon Law at Rome’s Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas and will defend his dissertation next spring.  The Club sincerely thanks Father Bené for his extraordinary presentation.  For information on arranging a tour of the Vatican necropolis, contact Gene Mariani at (314) 352-5484 or emariani@aol.com.
 

22.  Giuseppe Parini (1729 – 1799) nacque a Bosisio in Brianza da famiglia della piccola borghesia locale.  Fu membro dell’Accademia dei Trasformati e precettore presso alcune famiglie nobili milanesi.  Acquistò fama di poeta e letterato grazie alla pubblicazione dei poemetti Il Mattino e Il Mezzogiorno, riconosciuti come i suoi lavori più importanti.  Rivestì cariche ufficiali sotto gli Austriaci, da responsabile alla riforma della scuola a poeta del teatro regio.

La vaga primavera
ecco che a noi sen viene;
e sparge le serene
aure di molli odori.

L'erbe novelle e i fiori
ornano il colle e il prato.
Torna a veder l'amato
nido la rondinella. 

E torna la sorella¹
di lei ai pianti gravi
e tornano ai soavi
baci le tortorelle.

Escon le pecorelle
del lor soggiorno odioso;
e cercan l'odoroso
timo di balza in balza.

La pastorella scalza
ne vien con esse a paro;
ne vien cantando il caro
nome del suo pastore.

Ed ei, seguendo Amore,
volge ove il canto sente;
e coglie la innocente
ninfa sul fresco rio.

Oggi del suo desio
Amore infiamma il mondo:
Amore il suo giocondo
senso a le cose inspira.

Sola il dolor non mira
Clori² del suo fedele:
e sol quella crudele
anima non sospira.

¹ Procne e Filomela, figlie del re di Atene Pandione, trasformate dagli dei in rondine e usignolo.  ²Clori, forse il nome della donna amata dal "committente" di questa ode.

Ottenuto il comando militare nell’Italia settentrionale e in Gallia per cinque anni, Cesare riuscì a crearsi una fortissima base di potere.  Sbarcò in Britannia negli anni 55 e 54 a.C., ma dovette desistere da questa impresa a causa della rivolta generale dei Galli sotto Vercingetorige (52 a.C.), un guerriero arverno di eccellenti qualità militari che Cesare costrinse a chiudersi in Alesia e a darsi prigioniero.  Nel 51 a. C. la Gallia era sottomessa. 

Durante la guerra gallica a Roma non erano cessati i disordini e si avvertiva il bisogno di stabilire un maggiore equilibrio fra i triumviri, ma la morte di Crasso avvenuta nella battaglia di Carre contro i Parti nel 53 a.C., mise in crisi il Triumvirato. 

Il conflitto tra Cesare e Pompeo scoppiò nell'anno 50 a.C.:  Pompeo voleva conseguire il primato a Roma con il consenso e la sanzione del Senato; Cesare, senza scrupoli costituzionali, mirava a un potere fondato sull'appoggio dell'esercito.  A una dubbia decisione del Senato di sostituirlo nel comando della Gallia, Cesare, non avendo altra via che la ribellione per conservare il proprio potere, si oppose con la forza e nella notte del 10 gennaio dell'anno 49 a.C. varcò in armi il Rubicone (che segnava il confine fra l'Italia propria e la Gallia Cisalpina), occupò Rimini e avanzò su Roma, mentre Pompeo e il Senato fuggivano in Grecia.  passando nell'Illiria e poi in Macedonia.  La battaglia decisiva fu combattuta a Farsalo in Tessaglia.  Pompeo, vinto, fuggì in Egitto dove Tolomeo XIV lo fece uccidere a tradimento (48 a. C.). 
Cesare, occupata l'Italia e le isole, passò in Egitto dove assegnò a Cleopatra il potere tolto a Tolomeo XIV e sconfisse in una rapida campagna Farnace, figlio di Mitridate.  Nel 47 intraprese la campagna d'Africa che rapidamente concluse a Tapso nel 46 a.C.  I superstiti seguaci di Pompeo fuggirono in Spagna dove furono sconfitti definitivamente nel 45 a. C. nella battaglia di Munda. 

Ormai padrone incontrastato di Roma, Cesare tornò in patria dove fu nominato dittatore a vita.  Pur rispettando formalmente l’autorità del senato, Cesare mantenne per sè una serie di poteri che gli permisero di riformare l’amministrazione dello stato e l’organizzazione delle province.